Automotive Transport Engineering, Transport Aspects, Automotive Transport Modes
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Automotive Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods
from one place to another. The term is derived from the Latin trans ("across") and
portare ("to carry"). Industries which have the business of providing equipment, actual automotive transport, transport of people or goods and services used in transport of goods or people make up a large broad and important sector of most national economies, and are collectively referred to as Transport Industries. |
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Automotive transport engineering (alternatively transportation engineering)
is the science of safe and efficient movement of people and goods (transport).
It is a sub-discipline of civil engineering. The planning aspects of transportation
engineering relate to urban planning, and involve technical forecasting decisions
and political factors.
Technical forecasting of passenger travel usually involves an urban transportation
planning model, requiring the estimation of trip generation (how many trips for
what purpose), trip distribution (destination choice, where is the traveler going),
mode choice (what mode is being taken), and route assignment (which streets or routes
are being used).
Automotive Transport Aspects
The field of Automotive Transport Aspects has several aspects: loosely they
can be divided into a triad of infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Infrastructure
includes the transport networks (roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals,
pipelines, etc.) that are used, as well as the nodes or terminals (such as airports,
railway stations, bus stations and seaports).
The vehicles generally ride on the networks, such as automobiles, bicycles, buses,
trains, aircraft. The operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated on
the network and the procedures set for this purpose including the legal environment
(Laws, Codes, Regulations, etc.) Policies, such as how to finance the system (for
example, the use of tolls or petrol taxes) may be considered part of the operations.
Broadly speaking, the design of networks are the domain of civil engineering and
urban planning, the design of vehicles of mechanical engineering and specialized
subfields such as nautical engineering and aerospace engineering, and the operations
are usually specialized, though might appropriately belong to operations research
or systems engineering.
Automotive Transport Modes and Categories
- Air transport
- Cable transport
- Conveyor transport
- Human-powered transport
- Hybrid transport
- New Mobility Agenda
- Rail transport
- Road transport, including human-powered transport such as walking and cycling
- Ship transport
- Space transport
- Sustainable transportation
- Transport on other planets
- Proposed future transport
(Non-human) Animal-powered Transport
Animal-powered transport is a broad category of the human use of non-human working animals (also known as "beasts of burden") for the movement of people and goods. Humans may ride some of the larger of these animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, singly or in teams, to pull (or haul) sleds or wheeled vehicles.
Air Transport
A fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane or aeroplane, is a heavier-than-air craft where movement of the wings in relation to the aircraft is not used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the aircraft generates lift.
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A more rare type of aircraft that is neither fixed-wing nor rotary-wing is an ornithopter.
A heliplane is both fixed-wing and rotary-wing. Fixed-wing aircraft include a large range of craft from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners and military cargo aircraft. Some aircraft use fixed wings to provide lift only part of the time and may or may not be referred to as fixed-wing. The current term also embraces aircraft with folding the wings that are intended to fold when on the ground. |
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This is usually to ease storage or facilitate transport on, for example,
a vehicle trailer or the powered lift connecting the hangar deck of an aircraft
carrier to its flight deck. It also embraces aircraft, such as the General Dynamics
F-111, Grumman F-14 Tomcat and the Panavia Tornado, which can vary the sweep angle
of their wings during flight.
These aircraft are termed "variable geometry" aircraft. When the wings of these
aircraft are fully swept, usually for high speed cruise, the trailing edges of their
wings about the leading edges of their tailplanes, giving an impression of a single
delta wing if viewed in plan. There are also rare examples of aircraft which can
vary the angle of incidence of their wings in flight, such the F-8 Crusader, which
are also considered to be "fixed-wing".
Two necessities for all fixed-wing aircraft (as well as rotary-wing aircraft) are
air flow over the wings for lifting of the aircraft, and an open area for landing.
The majority of aircraft, however, also need an airport with the infrastructure
to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading
of crew, cargo and/or passengers. While the vast majority of aircraft land and take
off on land, some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow and calm water.
The aircraft is the second fastest method of transport, after the rocket.
Commercial jet aircraft can reach up to 875 km/h. Single-engine aircraft are capable
of reaching 175 km/h or more at cruise speed. Supersonic aircraft (military, research
and a few private aircraft) can reach speeds faster than sound. The record is currently
held by the SR-71 with a speed of 3,529.56 km/h (2193.17 mph, 1905.81 knots).
Rail Transport
Rail transport is the automotive transport of passengers and goods along railways or railroads. A typical railway (or railroad) track consists of two parallel steel (or in older networks, iron) rails, generally anchored perpendicular to beams (termed sleepers or ties) of timber, concrete, or steel to maintain a consistent distance apart, or gauge. The rails and perpendicular beams are usually then placed on a foundation made of concrete or compressed earth and gravel in a bed of ballast to prevent the track from buckling (bending out of its original configuration) as the ground settles over time beneath and under the weight of the vehicles passing above.
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The vehicles traveling on the rails are arranged in a train; a series of individual
powered or unpowered vehicles linked together, displaying markers. These vehicles
(referred to, in general, as cars, carriages or wagons) move with much less friction
than on rubber tires on a paved road, and the locomotive that pulls the train tends
to use energy far more efficiently as a result. In rail transport, a train consists of rail vehicles that move along guides to transport freight or passengers from one place to another. |
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The guideway (permanent way) usually consists of conventional rail tracks, but might
also be monorail or maglev.
Propulsion for the train is provided by a separate locomotive, or from individual
motors in self-propelled multiple units. Most trains are powered by diesel engines
or by electricity supplied by trackside systems. Historically the steam engine
was the dominant form of locomotive power through the mid-20th century, but other
sources of power (such as horses, rope (or wire), gravity, pneumatics, or gas turbines)
are possible.
Road Transport
Automobile
An automobile is a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Different
types of automobiles include cars, buses, trucks, and vans. Some include motorcycles
in the category, but cars are the most typical automobiles. As of 2002 there were
590 million passenger cars worldwide (roughly one car for every ten people), of
which 170 million in the U.S. (roughly one car for every two people).
The automobile was thought of as an environmental improvement over horses when it
was first introduced in the 1890s. Before its introduction, in New York City alone,
more than 1,800 tons of manure had to be removed from the streets daily, although
the manure was used as natural fertilizer for crops and to build top soil. In 2006,
the automobile is recognized as one of the primary sources of world-wide air pollution
and a cause of substantial noise pollution and adverse health effects.
These are included:
- Bus
- Road train
- Semi-trailer truck
- Truck
- Limousine
- Taxi cab
- Share taxi
- Car pooling
Water Transport
Watercraft
A watercraft is a vehicle designed to float on and move across (or under) water
for pleasure, physical exercise (in the case of many small boats), transporting
people and/or goods, or military missions.
The common need for buoyancy unites all watercraft, and makes each one's hull a
dominant aspect of its construction, maintenance, and appearance.
Most watercraft would be described as either ships or boats; although nearly
all ships are larger than nearly all boats, the distinction between those
two categories is not one of size per se:
- A rule of thumb says "a boat can fit on a ship, but a ship can't
fit on a boat", and a ship usually has sufficient size to carry its own boats,
such as lifeboats, dinghies, or runabouts.
- Often local law and regulation will define the exact size (or the number of masts)
that distinguishes a ship from boats.
- Traditionally submarines were called "boats", perhaps reflecting their cramped conditions: small size reduces the need for power, and thus the need to surface or snorkel for a supply of the air that running diesel engines requires; in contrast, nuclear-powered submarines' reactors supply abundant power without consuming air, and such craft are large, much roomier, and classed as ships.
Another definition says a ship is any floating craft that transports cargo
for the purpose of earning revenue; in that context, passenger ships transport
"supercargo", another name for passengers or persons not working on board. However,
neither fishing boats nor ferries are considered ships, though both carry
cargo (their catch of the day or passengers) (and for that matter lifeboats).
English seldom uses the term watercraft to describe any specific individual object
(and probably then only as an affectation): rather the term serves to unify the
category that ranges from small boats to the largest ships, and also includes
the diverse watercraft for which some term even more specific than ship or boat
(e.g., canoe, kayak, raft, barge, jet ski) comes to mind first. (Some of these would
even be considered at best questionable as examples of boats).
Ship Transport
Ship transport is the process of moving people, goods, etc. by barge, boat,
ship or sailboat over a sea, ocean, lake, canal or river. This is frequently undertaken
for purposes of commerce, recreation or military objectives.
A hybrid of ship transport and road transport is the historic horse-drawn
boat. Hybrids of ship transport and air transport are kite surfing and parasailing.
The first craft were probably types of canoes cut out from tree trunks. The colonization
of Australia by Indigenous Australians provides indirect but conclusive evidence
for the latest date for the invention of ocean-going craft; land bridges linked
southeast Asia through most of the Malay Archipelago but a strait had to be crossed
to arrive at New Guinea, which was then linked to Australia. Ocean-going craft were
required for the colonization to happen.
Early sea transport was accomplished with ships that were either rowed or
used the wind for propulsion, and often, in earlier times with smaller vessels,
a combination of the two.
Also there have been horse-powered boats, with horses on the deck providing power.
Ship transport was frequently used as a mechanism for conducting warfare.
Military use of the seas and waterways is covered in greater detail under navy.
In the 1800s the first steam ships were developed, using a steam engine to
drive a paddle wheel or propeller to move the ship. The steam was produced using
wood or coal. Now most ships have an engine using a slightly refined type
of petroleum called bunker fuel. Some specialized ships, such as submarines, use
nuclear power to produce the steam.
Recreational or educational craft still use wind power, while some smaller craft
use internal combustion engines to drive one or more propellers, or in the
case of jet boats, an inboard water jet. In shallow draft areas, such as the Everglades,
some craft, such as the hovercraft, are propelled by large pusher-prop fans.
Although relatively slow, modern sea transport is a highly effective method
of transporting large quantities of non-perishable goods. Transport by water
is significantly less costly than transport by air for trans-continental shipping.
In the context of sea transport, a road is an anchorage.
Transport and Communications
Transport and Communication are both substitutes and complements. Though
it might be possible that sufficiently advanced communication could substitute for
transport, one could telegraph, telephone, fax, or email a customer rather than
visiting them in person, it has been found that those modes of communication in
fact generate more total interactions, including interpersonal interactions.
The growth in transport would be impossible without communication, which is vital
for advanced transportation systems, from railroads which want to run trains in
two directions on a single track, to air traffic control which requires knowing
the location of aircraft in the sky. Thus, it has been found that the increase of
one generally leads to more of the other.
Transport and Land Use
The first Europeans who came to the New World brought with them a culture of transportation
centred on the wheel. North America's Aboriginal peoples had developed differently,
and moved through their country by means of canoes, kayaks, umiaks, coracles, and
other water-borne vehicles, constructed from various types of bark, hide, bone,
wood, and other materials; as well, the snowshoe, toboggan and sled were essential
during the winter conditions that prevailed throughout the northern half of the
continent for much of the year.
Europeans quickly adopted all of these technologies themselves, and therefore were
able to travel to the northern interior of Canada via the many waterways that branched
out from the St. Lawrence River and from Hudson Bay.
There is a well-known relationship between the density of development, and types
of transportation. Intensity of development is often measured by area of floor area
ratio (FAR), the ratio of usable floorspace to area of land. As a rule of thumb,
FARs of 1.5 or less are well suited to automobiles, those of six and above are well
suited to trains. The range of densities from about two up to about four is not
well served by conventional public or private transport. Many cities have grown
into these densities, and are suffering traffic problems.
Land uses support activities. Those activities are spatially separated. People need
automotive transport to go from one to the other (from home to work to shop
back to home for instance). Transport is a "derived demand," in that transport
is unnecessary but for the activities pursued at the ends of trips. Good land use
keeps common activities close (e.g. housing and food shopping), and places higher-density
development closer to transportation lines and hubs. Poor land use concentrates
activities (such as jobs) far from other destinations (such as housing and shopping).
There are economies of agglomeration. Beyond transportation some land uses are more
efficient when clustered. Transportation facilities consume land, and in cities,
pavement (devoted to streets and parking) can easily exceed 20 percent of the total
land use. An efficient automotive transport system can reduce land waste.
Transport in Cities
Because of the much higher densities of people and activities, environmental, economic,
public health, social and quality of life considerations and constraints are important
in cities.
Urban transport has been led by professional transport planners and traffic experts,
who have made use of the same forecasting and response tools that they have used
to good effect in other transport sectors. This has led in most cities to a substantial
overbuilding of the road and supporting infrastructure, which has maximized throughput
in terms of the numbers of vehicles and the speeds with which they pass through
and move around in the built-up areas.
Too much infrastructure and too much smoothing for maximum vehicle throughput means
that in many cities there is too much traffic and many - if not all - of the negative
impacts that come with it.
It is only in recent years that traditional practices have started to be questioned
in many places, and as a result of new types of analysis which bring in a much broader
range of skills than those traditionally relied on – spanning such areas as environmental
impact analysis, public health, sociologists as well as economists who increasingly
are questioning the viability of the old mobility solutions. European cities are
leading this transition.
These issues are included:
- Public transport.
- Transport engineering.
- Sustainable Transportation.
- New Mobility Agenda.
Transport, Energy, and the Environment
Automotive transport is a major use of energy, and transport burns most of
the world's petroleum. Transportation accounts for 2/3ds of all U.S. petroleum consumption.
The transportation sector generates 82 percent of carbon monoxide and 56 percent
of NOx emissions and over one-quarter of total US greenhouse gas emissions. Hydrocarbon
fuels also produce carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas widely thought to be the chief
cause of global climate change, and petroleum-powered engines, especially
inefficient ones, create air pollution, including nitrous oxides and particulates
(soot).
Although vehicles in developed countries have been getting cleaner because of environmental
regulations, this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles and more
use of each vehicle.
Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and
automobile-oriented urban sprawl, which can consume natural habitat and agricultural
lands. Toxic runoff from roads and parking lots that can also pollute water supplies
and aquatic ecosystems.
Alternative propulsion can reduce pollution. Low pollution fuels may have a reduced
carbon content, and thereby contribute less in the way of carbon dioxide emissions,
and generally have reduced sulfur, since sulfur exhaust is a cause of acid rain.
The most popular low-pollution fuels at this time are biofuels: gasoline-ethanol
blends and biodiesel. Hydrogen is an even lower-pollution fuel that produces no
carbon dioxide, but producing and storing it economically is currently not feasible.
Plug-in hybrids are energy-efficient vehicles that are going to be in the mass-production.
Efficiency
Another strategy is to make vehicles more efficient, which reduces pollution and
waste by reducing the energy use. Electric vehicles use efficient electric motors,
but their range is limited by either the extent of the electric transmission system
or by the storage capacity of batteries.
Electrified public transport generally uses overhead wires or third rails to transmit
electricity to vehicles, and is used for both rail and bus transport. Battery electric
vehicles store their electric fuel onboard in a battery pack. Another method is
to generate energy using fuel cells, which may eventually be two to five times as
efficient as the internal combustion engines currently used in most vehicles.
Another effective method is to streamline ground vehicles, which spend up to 75%
of their energy on air-resistance, and to reduce their weight.
Regenerative braking is possible in all electric vehicles and recaptures the energy
normally lost to braking, and is becoming common in rail vehicles. In internal combustion
automobiles and buses, regenerative braking is not possible, unless electric vehicle
components are also a part of the powertrain, these are called hybrid electric vehicles.
Shifting travel from automobiles to well-utilized public transport can reduce energy
consumption and traffic congestion.
Walking and bicycling instead of traveling by motorized means also reduces the consumption
of fossil fuels. While the use of these two modes generally declines as a given
area becomes wealthier, there are some countries (including Denmark, Netherlands,
Japan and parts of Germany, Finland and Belgium) where bicycling comprises a significant
share of trips. Some cities with particularly high modal shares of cycling are Oulu
(25%), Copenhagen (33%) and Groningen (50%).
A number of other cities, including London, Paris, New York, Sydney, Bogotá, Chicago
and San Francisco are creating networks of bicycle lanes and bicycle paths, but
the value of such devices for utility cycling is highly controversial.
There is also a growing movement of drivers who practice ways to increase their
MPG and save fuel through driving techniques. They are often referred to as hypermilers.
Hypermilers have broken records of fuel efficiency, averaging 109 miles per gallon
driving a Prius. In non-hybrid vehicles these techniques are also beneficial. Hypermiler
Wanye Gerdes can get 59 MPG in a Honda Accord and 30 MPG in an Acura MDX.
Transport Future Challenges
While automotive transport has economic and social benefits, the sector faces
many challenges to maintain a sustainable future.
These challenges include addressing of following:
- Environmental concerns:
- Fuel efficiency
- Greenhouse gas emissions
- Material recycling and re-use
- Noise pollution
- Traffic on sea and land congestion
- Water and soil quality due to contaminated road run-off
- Fuel efficiency
- Transport safety:
- Safer transport infrastructure
- Safer vehicles
- Safer transport infrastructure
- Competitiveness:
- The ability to defend and/or gain market share in the global automotive transport industry.
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