Electric Power Fuel, Electric Power Propulsion, Hybrid Electric Vehicles
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History of the Hybrid Electric Power Fuel Vehicles began in the mid-1800s
and held the vehicular land speed record until around 1900. The high cost and low top speed of electric vehicles compared to later internal combustion vehicles caused a worldwide decline in their use, and only relatively recently have they re-emerged into the public eye. Hybrid Electric Power Fuel cars started to become popular because they were quieter and ran smoother than other cars. Electric motive power started with a small railway operated by a miniature electric motor, built by Thomas Davenport in 1835. In 1838, a Scotsman named Robert Davidson built an electric locomotive that attained a speed of six kilometers (4 miles) an hour. |
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The electric car, EV, or simply electric vehicle is a battery electric vehicle
(BEV) that utilizes chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. Electric
vehicles use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion
engines (ICEs).
Vehicles using both electric motors and ICEs are examples of hybrid vehicles,
and are not considered pure BEVs because they operate in a charge-sustaining mode.
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Hybrid electric vehicles with batteries that can be charged externally to
displace some or all of their ICE power and gasoline fuel are called plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles (PHEV), and are pure BEVs during their charge-depleting
mode. BEVs are usually automobiles, light trucks, neighborhood Hybrid electric vehicles, motorcycles, motorized bicycles, electric scooters, golf carts, milk floats, forklifts and similar vehicles. BEVs were among the earliest automobiles. BEVs produce no exhaust fumes, and minimal pollution if charged from most forms of renewable energy. |
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Many are capable of acceleration exceeding that of conventional vehicles, are quiet,
and do not produce noxious fumes.
BEVs may reduce dependence on petroleum, enhance national security, and mitigate
global warming, depending on how their electricity is produced.
Historically, BEVs and PHEVs have had issues with high battery costs, limited travel
distance between battery recharging, charging time, and battery lifespan, which
have limited widespread adoption. Ongoing battery technology advancements have addressed
many of these problems[citation needed]; many models have recently been prototyped,
and a handful of future production models have been announced.
Toyota, Honda, Ford and General Motors all produced BEVs in the 90s in order to
comply with the California Air Resources Board's Zero Emission Vehicle Mandate.
The major US automobile manufacturers have been accused of deliberately sabotaging
their electric vehicle production efforts.
Battery EVs may be cheaper to make and maintain than internal combustion engine
vehicles because they have many fewer parts. They are less expensive to operate
by a factor of ten over gasoline. Using regenerative braking, a feature which is
standard on many electric and hybrid vehicles, a significant portion of energy may
be recovered.
In general terms a battery electric vehicle is a rechargeable electric vehicle.
Other examples of rechargeable electric vehicles are ones that store electricity
in ultracapacitors, or in a flywheel.
Electric Vehicles History
BEVs were among some of the earliest automobiles — electric vehicles predate
gasoline and diesel. Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain), Scottish
businessman Robert Anderson invented the first crude electric carriage. Professor
Sibrandus Stratingh of Groningen, the Netherlands, designed the small-scale
electric car, built by his assistant Christopher Becker in 1835.
The improvement of the storage battery, by Frenchmen Gaston Plante in 1865
and Camille Faure in 1881, paved the way for electric vehicles to flourish.
France and Great Britain were the first nations to support the widespread development
of electric vehicles. In November 1881 French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated
a working three-wheeled automobile at the International Exhibition of Electricity
in Paris.
Just prior to 1900, before the pre-eminence of powerful but polluting internal combustion
engines, electric automobiles held many speed and distance records. Among the most
notable of these records was the breaking of the 100 km/h (60 mph) speed barrier,
by Camille Jenatzy on April 29, 1899 in his 'rocket-shaped' vehicle Jamais
Contente, which reached a top speed of 105.88 km/h (65.79 mph).
BEVs, produced in the USA by Anthony Electric, Baker, Detroit, Edison, Studebaker,
and others during the early 20th Century for a time out-sold gasoline-powered vehicles.
Due to technological limitations and the lack of transistor-based electric technology,
the top speed of these early electric vehicles was limited to about 32 km/h (20
mph). These vehicles were successfully sold as town cars to upper-class customers
and were often marketed as suitable vehicles for women drivers due to their clean,
quiet and easy operation. Electrics did not require hand-cranking to start.
The introduction of the electric starter by Cadillac in 1913 simplified the
task of starting the internal combustion engine, formerly difficult and sometimes
dangerous. This innovation contributed to the downfall of the electric vehicle,
as did the mass-produced and relatively inexpensive Ford Model T, which had been
produced for four years, since 1908. Internal-combustion vehicles advanced technologically,
ultimately becoming more practical than — and out-performing — their electric-powered
competitors.
Another blow to BEVs in the USA was the loss of Edison's direct current (DC)
electric power transmission system in the War of Currents. This deprived BEV users
of a convenient source of DC electricity to recharge their batteries. As the technology
of rectifiers was still in its infancy, changing alternating current to DC required
a costly rotary converter.
Battery electric vehicles became popular for some limited range applications.
Forklifts were BEVs when they were introduced in 1923 by Yale and some battery electric
fork lifts are still produced. BEV golf carts have been available for many years,
including early models by Lektra in 1954. Their popularity led to their use as neighborhood
electric vehicles and expanded versions became available which were partially "street
legal".
By the late 1930s, the electric automobile industry had completely disappeared,
with battery-electric traction being limited to niche applications, such as certain
industrial vehicles. A thorough examination into the social and technological reasons
for the failure of BEVs is to be found in Taking Charge: The Electric Automobile
in America by Michael Brian Schiffer.
The 1947 invention of the point-contact transistor marked the beginning of a new
era for BEV technology. Within a decade, Henney Coachworks had joined forces with
National Union Electric Company, the makers of Exide batteries, to produce the first
modern electric car based on transistor technology, the Henney Kilowatt, produced
in 36-volt and 72-volt configurations.
The 72-volt models had a top speed approaching 96 km/h (60 mph) and could travel
nearly an hour on a single charge. Despite the improved practicality of the Henney
Kilowatt over previous electric cars, it was too expensive, and production was terminated
in 1961. Even though the Henney Kilowatt never reached mass production volume, their
transistor-based electric technology paved the way for modern EVs.
After California indicated that it would kill its ZEV Mandate, Toyota offered the
last 328 RAV4-EV for sale to the general public during six months (ending on November
22, 2002). All the rest were only leased, and with minor exceptions those models
were withdrawn from the market and destroyed by manufacturers (other than Toyota).
Toyota not only supports the 328 Toyota RAV4-EV in the hands of the general public,
still all running at this date, but also supports hundreds in fleet usage. From
time to time, Toyota RAV4-EV come up for sale on the used market, at prices that
have ranged up to the mid 60 thousands of dollars. These are highly prized by solar
homeowners who wish to charge their cars from their solar electric rooftop systems.
In 2004, several Silicon Valley entrepreneurs (Elon Musk, known for co-founding
Paypal and founding SpaceX, and Martin Eberhard) started Tesla Motors. In
2006 they announced the production of the Tesla Roadster. The Roadster, the design
of which is loosely based on the Lotus Elise, uses Lithium-Ion batteries rather
than the lead-acid batteries which had previously been predominant in BEVs.
The vehicle, using 6831 li-ion batteries, is capable of traveling 245 miles per
charge, an equivalent fuel efficiency of 135 mpg (U.S.) (1.74 L/100 km), yet accelerates
from 0-60 in under 4 seconds on its way to a top speed of 135 mph (210 km/h). Tesla
is set to roll out the first fleet of Roadsters in Q1 of 2008.
As of July, 2006, there are between 60,000 and 76,000 low-speed, battery powered
vehicles in use in the US, up from about 56,000 in 2004 according to Electric Drive
Transportation Association estimates.
Comparison to Internal Combustion Vehicles (ICV)
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Battery electric vehicles (BEV) have become much less common than internal combustion
engine vehicles (ICEV). Therefore, it is often helpful to consider many aspects of Battery electric vehicles in comparison to Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles. |
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Cost
While petrol powered cars may reach 75 or 100 mpg (3L/100 km), electric cars may reach the equivalent of 200 mpg (1.5 L/100km) with their typical cost of two to four cents per mile. In contrast, gasoline-powered ICEVs currently cost about four to six times as much.
The total cost of ownership for modern BEVs depends primarily on the cost of the
batteries, the type and capacity of which determine several factors such as travel
range, top speed, battery lifetime and recharging time; several trade-offs exist.
Batteries are usually the most expensive component of BEVs, though the price per
kWh of charge has fallen rapidly in recent years, and batteries from old or wrecked
electric cars can be bought for battery-to-grid mini-power plants. The cost of battery
manufacture is substantial, but increasing returns to scale may serve to lower their
cost when BEVs are manufactured on the scale of modern internal combustion vehicles.
Since the late 1990s, advances in battery technologies have been driven by skyrocketing
demand for laptop computers and mobile phones, with consumer demand for more features,
larger, brighter displays, and longer battery time driving research and development
in the field. The BEV marketplace has reaped the benefits of these advances. Some
batteries can be leased or rented instead of bought.
One article indicates that 10 kWh of battery power provides a range of about 20
miles in a Toyota Prius, but this is not a primary source, and does not fit with
estimates elsewhere of about 5 miles per KWH. The Chevy Volt is expected to use
50 MPG when running on the auxiliary power unit (a small onboard generator) - at
33% thermodynamic efficiency that would mean 12 KWHs for 50 miles, or about 240
watt hours per mile.
Ownership Costs
Initial costs for a Battery Electric vehicle can be higher, but overall cost
of ownership is lower, simply because electricity costs less to create than gasoline.
While the initial cost can be over 30,000US, the cost of electricity to charge the
battery costs a fraction of a cent per mile, whereas most gasoline cars cost over
10 cents per mile. Thus, inital cost is higher, but overall cost is lower.
In the UK other changes in ownership costs include vehicle excise duty or road tax.
Electric vehicles are now exempt and so BEV owners will save around £100
per year compared with an average conventional car. There remains some uncertainty
about annual depreciation rates and resale values for BEVs due to the unknown length
of battery-life and the low demand for battery electrics compared to other green
car types. As BEVs lose their value faster than conventional cars depreciation rates
are likely to be higher than for a conventional car at this time.
In the UK, BEV users who install additional recharging equipment will face additional
financial penalties. Costs per standard charge point are around £500-£2000, depending
on the difficulty of installation. Fully installed fast-chargers will cost between
£10,000 and £30,000 per point although this depends on whether an on-board or off-board
fast-charging system is used.
Running Costs
Some running costs are significantly less for BEVs than for conventional cars. In
particular, fuel costs are very low due to the competitive price of electricity
- fuel duty is zero-rated - and to the high efficiency of the vehicles themselves.
Taking into account the high fuel economy of battery electric cars, the fuel costs
can be as low as 1.0-2.5p per mile (depending on the tariff).
For a typical annual mileage of around 10,000 miles per year, switching from a conventional
car to a battery electric could save you around £800 in fuel costs. However if the
battery hire is considered a running cost, then the saving on fuel is cancelled
out by the monthly battery leasing cost. In the New York City metropolitan area,
the cost to run a battery (non-hybrid) electric car using standard deep cycle lead
acid marine type batteries and is charged from the mains, costs about 3 times more
to run than a conventional petrol car.
BEV operating costs can be directly compared to the equivalent operating costs of
a gasoline-powered vehicle. A gallon of gasoline contains about 36.4 kWh of energy.
To calculate the cost of the electrical equivalent of a gallon of gasoline, multiply
the utility cost per kWh by 36.4. To calculate the equivalent mileage of a BEV,
divide 36.4 kWh/gal by the energy efficiency in kWh/mile, to get the equivalent
miles per gallon. For example, if a BEV owner's electricity rate is $0.10 per kWh,
and the BEV gets 0.20 kWh/mile, then the owner is paying the equivalent of $3.64
per gallon of gasoline, and getting the equivalent of 182 miles per gallon.
Energy Efficiency and Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Production and conversion BEVs typically use 0.17 to 0.37 kilowatt-hours per mile
(0.1–0.23 kWh/km). Nearly half of this power consumption is due to inefficiencies
in charging the batteries. Tesla Motors indicates that the well to wheels power
consumption of their li-ion powered vehicle is 0.215 kwh per mile.
The US fleet average of 23 miles per gallon of gasoline is equivalent to 1.58 kWh
per mile and the 70 MPG Honda Insight uses 0.52 kWh per mile (assuming 36.4 kWh
per US gallon of gasoline), so hybrid electric vehicles are relatively energy efficient,
and battery electric vehicles are much more energy efficient. A 2001 DOE
estimate calculates a battery powered EV at 7 cents/kWh can be driven 43 miles for
a dollar and at $1.25/gallon a gasoline vehicle will go 18 miles.
Generating electricity and providing liquid fuels for vehicles are different categories
of the energy economy, with different inefficiencies and environmental harms. A
55 % to 99.9 % improvement in CO2 emissions takes place when driving an EV over
an ICE (gasoline, diesel) vehicle depending on the source of electricity. Comparing
CO2 emissions can be done by using the US national average of 1.28 lbs CO2/kWh [citation
needed] for electricity generation, giving a range for BEVs from zero up to 0.2
to 0.5 lbs CO2/mi (0.06 kg/km to 0.13 kg/km).
Because 1 gal of gasoline produces 19 lbs CO2 when burned in a typical automobile
engine, the average US fleet produces 0.83 lbs/mi (0.23 kg/km), a 40 mpg car produces
approximately 0.47 lbs/mi and the Insight 0.27 lbs/mi (0.08 kg/km). CO2 and other
greenhouse gases emissions are minimal for BEVs powered from sustainable electricity
sources (e.g. solar energy), but are constant per gallon (or litre) for petrol
vehicles.
Maintenance
Electric cars, particularly those using AC or brushless DC motors, have far fewer
parts to wear out. An ICE vehicle on the other hand will have many mechanical, fluid,
and electrical parts inlcluding: pistons, connecting rods, crankshafts, cylinder
walls, valves, valve springs, valve guides, camshafts, cambelts, oil pumps, fuel
pumps, water pumps, radiators, gearbox(also used in some EV's), clutch, distributors,
spark plugs and their wires, air filters, oil filters, many coolant and vacuum hoses,
injectors or carburators, turbos or superchargers, multiple gaskets and seals, numerous
bearings, all of which can wear out, (lifters, pushrods, and rocker arms are unnecessary
complications added in some American engines, but are slowly being outdated).
Both hybrids and EVs can use regenerative braking, which greatly reduces wear and
tear on friction brakes - Prius taxi drivers report far less frequent brake maintenance.
Acceleration Performance
Although some electric vehicles have very small motors, 20 hp or less and therefore
have modest acceleration, the relatively constant torque of an electric motor even
at very low speeds tends to increase the acceleration performance of an electric
vehicle for the same rated motor power. Another early solution was American Motors'
experimental Amitron piggyback system of batteries with one type designed for sustained
speeds while a different set boosted acceleration when needed.
Electric vehicles can also utilize a direct motor-to-wheel configuration
which increases the amount of available power. Having multiple motors connected
directly to the wheels allows for each of the wheels to be used for both propulsion
and as braking systems, thereby increasing traction. In some cases, the motor can
be housed directly in the wheel, such as in the Whispering Wheel design, which lowers
the vehicle's center of gravity and reduces the number of moving parts. When not
fitted with an axle, differential, or transmission, electric vehicles have less
drivetrain rotational inertia.
A gearless or single gear design in some BEVs eliminates the need for gear shifting,
giving such vehicles both smoother acceleration and smoother braking. Because the
torque of an electric motor is a function of current, not rotational speed,
electric vehicles have a high torque over a larger range of speeds during acceleration,
as compared to an internal combustion engine. As there is no delay in developing
torque in an EV, EV drivers report generally high satisfaction with acceleration.
For example, the Venturi Fetish delivers supercar acceleration despite a relatively
modest 300 horsepower, and a top speed of around 100 miles per hour. Some DC motor-equipped
drag racer BEVs, have simple two-speed transmissions to improve top speed. The Tesla
Roadster prototype can reach 60 mph in 4 seconds with a motor rated at 248 hp.
Electric Vehicles Batteries
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Rechargeable batteries used in electric vehicles include lead-acid ("flooded" and
VRLA), NiCd, nickel metal hydride, lithium ion, Li-ion polymer, and, less commonly,
zinc-air and molten salt batteries. Charging Batteries in BEVs must be periodically recharged. BEVs most commonly charge from the power grid (at home or using a street or shop recharging point), which is in turn generated from a variety of domestic resources; such as coal, hydroelectricity, nuclear and others. |
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Home power such as roof top photovoltaic solar cell panels, microhydro or wind may
also be used and are promoted because of concerns regarding global warming.
Charging time is limited primarily by the capacity of the grid connection. A normal
household outlet is between 1.5 kilowatts (in the US, Canada, Japan, and other countries
with 110 Volt supply) to 3 kilowatts (in countries with 240 V supply). The main
connection to a house might be able to sustain 10 kilowatts, and special wiring
can be installed to use this. At this higher power level charging even a small,
7 kilowatt-hour (14–28 mi) pack, would probably require one hour.
This is small compared to the effective power delivery rate of an average petrol
pump, about 5,000 kilowatts. Even if the supply power can be increased, most batteries
do not accept charge at greater than their charge rate ("1C"), because high charge
rate has adverse effect on the discharge capacities of batteries.
In 1995, some charging stations charged BEVs in one hour. In November 1997, Ford
purchased a fast-charge system produced by AeroVironment called "PosiCharge" for
testing its fleets of Ranger EVs, which charged their lead-acid batteries in between
six and fifteen minutes. In February 1998, General Motors announced a version of
its "Magne Charge" system which could recharge NiMH batteries in about ten minutes,
providing a range of sixty to one hundred miles.
In 2005, handheld device battery designs by Toshiba were claimed to be able to accept
an 80% charge in as little as 60 seconds. Scaling this specific power characteristic
up to the same 7 kilowatt-hour EV pack would result in the need for a peak of 336
kilowatts of power from some source for those 60 seconds. It is not clear that such
batteries will work directly in BEVs as heat build-up may make them unsafe.
In 2010, Altairnano's NanoSafe batteries are rechargeable in a few minutes, versus
hours required for other rechargeable batteries. A NanoSafe cell can be charged
to over 80% charge capacity in about one minute.
Most people do not always require fast recharging because they have enough time,
six to eight hours, during the work day or overnight to recharge. As the charging
does not require attention it takes a few seconds for an owner to plug in and unplug
their vehicle.
Many BEV drivers prefer refueling at home, avoiding the inconvenience of visiting
a fuel station. Some workplaces provide special parking bays for electric vehicles
with charging equipment provided. In colder areas such as Minnesota and Canada there
exists some infrastructure for public power outlets, in parking garages and at parking
meters, provided primarily for engine pre-heating.
Connectors
The charging power can be connected to the car in two ways (electric coupling).
The first is a direct electrical connection known as conductive coupling. This might
be as simple as a mains lead into a weatherproof socket through special high capacity
cables with connectors to protect the user from high voltages.
The second approach is known as inductive coupling. A special 'paddle' is inserted
into a slot on the car. The paddle is one winding of a transformer, while the other
is built into the car. When the paddle is inserted it completes a magnetic circuit
which provides power to the battery pack.
The major advantage of the inductive approach is that there is no possibility of
electrocution as there are no exposed conductors, although interlocks, special connectors
and ground fault detectors can make conductive coupling nearly as safe. Inductive
charging can also reduce vehicle weight, by moving more charging componentry offboard.
Conductive coupling equipment is lower in cost and much more efficient due to a
vastly lower component count. An inductive charging proponent from Toyota contended
in 1998 that overall cost differences were minimal, while a conductive charging
proponent from Ford contended that conductive charging was more cost efficient.
Travel Range Before Recharging
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The range of a BEV depends on the number and type of batteries used, and the performance
demands of the driver. Finding the economic balance of range versus performance, battery capacity versus weight, and battery type versus cost challenges every EV manufacturer. The weight and type of vehicle also have an impact just as they do on the mileage of traditional vehicles. Electric vehicle conversions depends on the battery type: |
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- Lead-acid batteries are the most available and inexpensive. Such conversions generally
have a range of 30 to 80 km (20 to 50 miles). Production EVs with lead-acid batteries
are capable of up to 130 km (80 miles) per charge.
- NiMH batteries have higher energy density and may deliver up to 200 km (120 miles)
of range.
- New lithium-ion battery-equipped EVs provide 400-500 km (250-300 miles) of range per charge. Lithium is also less expensive than nickel.
With an AC system regenerative braking can extend range by up to 50% under extreme
traffic conditions without complete stopping. Otherwise, the range is extended by
about 10 to 15% in city driving, and only negligibly in highway driving, depending
upon terrain.
BEVs (including buses and trucks) can also use genset trailers and pusher trailers
in order to extended their range when desired without the additional weight during
normal short range use. Discharged baset trailers can be replaced by recharged ones
in a route point. If rented then maintenance costs can be deferred to the agency.
Such BEVs can become Hybrid vehicles depending on the trailer and car types
of energy and powertrain.
Replacing
An alternative to recharging is to exchange drained or nearly drained batteries (or battery range extender modules) with fully charged batteries.
Re-Filling
Zinc-bromine flow batteries can be re-filled, instead of recharged, saving time.
Uploading and Grid Buffering
Smart grid allows BEVs to provide power to the grid in anytime, specially:
- During peak load periods, when the selling price of electricity can be very high.
These vehicles can then be recharged during off-peak hours at cheaper rates while
helping to absorb excess night time generation. Here the vehicles serve as a distributed
battery storage system to buffer power.
- During blackouts, as backup.
Lifespan
Individual batteries are usually arranged into large battery packs of various voltage
and ampere-hour capacity products to give the required energy capacity. Battery
life should be considered when calculating the extended cost of ownership, as all
batteries eventually wear out and must be replaced. The rate at which they expire
depends on a number of factors.
The depth of discharge (DOD) is the recommended proportion of the total available
energy storage for which that battery will achieve its rated cycles. Deep cycle
lead-acid batteries generally should not be discharged below 80% capacity. More
modern formulations can survive deeper cycles.
In real world use, some fleet Toyota RAV4 EVs, using NiMH batteries, have exceeded
100,000 miles (160,000 km) with little degradation in their daily range.
Jay Leno's 1909 Baker Electric still operates on its original Edison cells. Battery
replacement costs of BEVs may be partially or fully offset by the lack of regular
maintenance such as oil and filter changes required for ICEVs, and by the greater
reliability of BEVs due to their fewer moving parts.
They also do away with many other parts that normally require servicing and maintenance
in a regular car, such as on the gearbox, cooling system, and engine tuning. And
by the time batteries do finally need definitive replacement, they can be replaced
with later generation ones which may offer better performance characteristics, in
the same way as you might replace old batteries from a digital camera with improved
ones.
Safety
The safety issues of battery electric vehicles are largely dealt with by the international standard ISO 6469. This document is divided in three parts dealing with specific issues:
- On-board electrical energy storage, i.e. the battery.
- Functional safety means and protection against failures.
- Protection of persons against electrical hazards.
Firefighters and rescue personnel receive special training to deal with the higher voltages and chemicals encountered in electric and hybrid electric vehicle accidents. While BEV accidents may present unusual problems, such as fires and fumes resulting from rapid battery discharge, there is apparently no available information regarding whether they are inherently more or less dangerous than petrol or diesel internal combustion vehicles which carry flammable fuels.
Future
The future of battery Hybrid electric vehicles depends primarily upon the
cost and availability of batteries with high energy densities, power density, and
long life, as all other aspects such as motors, motor controllers, and chargers
are fairly mature and cost-competitive with internal combustion engine components.
Li-ion, Li-poly and zinc-air batteries have demonstrated energy densities high enough
to deliver range and recharge times comparable to conventional vehicles.
Bolloré a French automative parts group developed a concept car the "Bluecar" using
Lithium metal polymer batteries developed by a subsidiary Batscap. It had a range
of 250 km and top speed of 125 km/h.
The cathodes of early 2010 lithium-ion batteries are made from lithium-cobalt metal
oxide. This material is pricey, and can release oxygen if its cell is overcharged.
If the cobalt is replaced with iron phosphates, the cells will not burn or release
oxygen under any charge.
The price premium for early 2010 hybrids is about US $5000, some $3000 of which
is for their NiMH battery packs. At early 2010 petrol and electricity prices,
that would break even after six to ten years of operation. The hybrid premium could
fall to $2000 in five years, with $1200 or more of that being cost of lithium-ion
batteries, providing a three-year payback.
Controversy
Most of the EVs produced in response to the CARB ZEV initiative by the three major
US automobile manufacturers, General Motors, Chrysler Corporation and Ford Motor
Company, as well as Honda, Nissan and Toyota were recalled and destroyed when the
initiative was withdrawn. Notable exceptions are many of the Toyota RAV4 EVs and
the Ford Th!nk.
Moreover, the three major American motor companies almost exclusively promoted their
electric cars in the American market, where gas has been comparatively cheap, and
virtually ignored the European market, where gas is significantly more expensive.
The apparent lack of good faith attempts to meet the ZEV initiative are addressed
in a film on the subject, directed by former EV1 owner and activist Chris Paine,
entitled Who Killed the Electric Car? which premiered at the Sundance Film
Festival and at the Tribeca Film Festival in 2006, and was released July 2006.
Proponents' Arguments
Supporters point out the following:
- BEVs reduce dependence on oil.
- BEVs reduce dependence on price manipulated oil markets.
- BEVs reduce vehicle energy costs by up to 90%.
- BEVs are up to 75% energy efficient (with ReGen) VS as little as 15% for a petrol
ICE powered car (inc. transmission losses).
- BEVs have much more torque than an ICE (for a given power rating) and a flat torque
curve.
- BEVs mitigate global warming (if a renewable, carbon-free energy source is used
such as nuclear power).
- BEVs are quieter than internal combustion engine vehicles (Though in the newest
ICE vehicles, engines only account for a small fraction of the noise; most noise
is produced by tires and aerodynamics in an equal measure as BEVs).
- BEVs do not produce noxious fumes.
- BEVs can readily satisfy the needs for short trips and up to 500 km with Li-Ion
and regeneration.
- Home recharging is more convenient than trips to petrol stations.
- BEVs can be recharged during regenerative braking (by converting the vehicle's
kinetic energy to chemical energy stored in the battery).
- Recharging costs are more predictable than gas prices, and not subject to volatile
international incidents.
- Maintenance such as oil changes, smog inspections (and their sometimes expensive
consequences), cooling fluid replacement, and periodic repair and adjustments are
reduced or completely eliminated, significantly reducing the cost of ownership.
- BEVs can be powered indirectly by home photovoltaics using net metering, which
offers advantages to both power producers and other grid users through peak demand
satisfaction and to the EV user through cost reduction and load balancing, especially
with time of use net metering.
- BEVs can provide power to a home in the case of a power outage if specially equipped.
- Even if powered by electricity from polluting coal plants, they are still far more
energy efficient than gasoline-powered cars.
- In case of an accident or during refueling no need to be worried about burning
or exploding gasoline.
- BEVs are favorable to hydrogen vehicles because there is no need to invest in a
large scale system of hydrogen distribution/storage, and BEVs have a significantly
higher energy conversion efficiency than hydrogen electrolization cycles. The electricity
distribution system is already in place.
- BEVs are powered by electricity, which can be produced from wind, hydro, solar or nuclear power giving zero carbon emmisions.
Opponents' Arguments
Skeptics of the viability of BEVs argue on conventional practicality grounds and in more general terms. Practicality grounds include:
- Electricity is produced using such methods as burning coal, producing about 0.97
kg of CO2 (2.1 pounds) per kilowatt-hour[5] plus other pollutants and strip-mining
damages: electric vehicles are therefore not "zero emissions" in any real-world
sense, except at their point of use unless renewable energy (solar, wind, wave,
tidal, geothermal, hydro power) or carbon neutral energy (nuclear fission/fusion)
is employed. It must be noted that even when electricity is gained entirely from
coal based power plants, the emission/millage is a lot less than those of oil based
cars.
- Zero emission electrical sources such as solar panels must still be manufactured,
producing various pollutants.
- Limited driving range available between recharging (using certain battery technologies).
- Expensive batteries, which may cost anywhere from under US$1,500 (lead acid) to
$20,000 (li-ion) to replace.
- Batteries need to be replaced frequently (in the case of Li-ion batteries typically
every 5 years).
- Scaleability of battery manufacturing is unproven.
- Poor cold weather performance of some kinds of batteries.
- Danger of electrocution and electromagnetic interference.
- Poor availability of public charging stations reduces practicality and may hinder initial take-up. People who live in flats or houses without private parking may not have an option to charge the vehicle at home.
It can also be argued that the current state of the automobile industry is simply
experiencing a shift due to superseding technologies, as was the case when the automobile
drove the production of horse-drawn carriages, saddles, and buggy-whips into obscurity.
Future automobiles will thus shift toward low-cost and low-maintenance items, compared
to today.
The problem of energy supply for transport may not be solved by choosing other energy
sources but by rightsizing the vehicles and their usage. With Low-energy vehicles
much of the above mentioned problems no longer exist - ultralights like the TWIKE
even allow to contribute pedaling.
Business Tips
Some tips on how to avoid business failure:
- Don't underestimate the capital you need to start up the business.
- Understand and keep control of your finances - income earned is not the same as
cash in hand.
- More volume does not automatically mean more profit - you need to get your pricing
right.
- Make sure you have good software for your business, software that provides you with a good reporting picture of all aspects of your business operations.
See More Information On:
-
ShopMateWeb Online Cloud Based Business Database Application
-
ShopMate Desktop Automotive Database Software
-
ShopMate Desktop Modules Explained - Screen Shots
-
AzureMate Desktop Cloud Data Storage Explorer Software
-
Software Downloads and Installations
-
MotoShop Automotive Database Software
-
Accountancy - Accounting Theories
-
Ideas for Business - Business Tips
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